Executive Summary
China’s People’s Liberation Army (PLA) has turned to technology-focused challenges and competitions to help prepare for future conflict. These events provide structured, evaluative environments to “discover, cultivate, and apply cutting-edge innovative technologies” for specific needs, such as countering swarms of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Others include aims to reveal new operational concepts enabled by emerging technologies, as well as train operators who excel at technical tasks, such as data analysis or drone operations.
While demonstrating technical proficiency, these events can also reveal the PLA’s key priorities, bottlenecks, and institutional dynamics within its defense innovation system, which would otherwise be difficult to observe. This blog summarizes public PLA announcements of challenges and competitions from January 2023 to December 2024 to understand the signals the PLA may be sending about technical priorities. The announcements are sourced from a dataset of notices published by the PLA and a comprehensive internet search of Chinese-language news sources.
The data reveals three main findings: 1) the PLA is pursuing multi-domain/cross-domain integration (e.g., air and cyberspace), 2) the PLA is highly interested in unmanned technological innovation (i.e., UAVs) and new efforts on UAV countermeasures, and 3) the PLA continues to broaden its network of partners across academia, the military, and industry to further military-civil fusion. The first finding points to evidence of the PLA’s commitmentto integrated joint operations across ground, air, sea, space, cyberspace, and information domains via technology competitions. The second finding highlights gaps in Chinese military innovation: the PLA notes struggles with both low autonomy and intelligence levels in drone-swarm countermeasure systems, which have motivated several technology competitions focused on technical breakthroughs, algorithmic progress, and enhanced software for autonomous coordination. The third finding underscores the increasing involvementof traditional enterprises, defense-affiliated research institutions, and nontraditional vendors in Chinese military competitions, reflecting the PLA’s growing ability to mobilize a broad innovation base across both hardware and software development. With this novel data, U.S. policymakers can glean insights into the PLA’s operational priorities, gaps, and institutional dynamics across emerging technologies and domains of interest.
Key Findings
Table 1 draws on 14 challenges from a dataset of documents published by the PLA between January 2023 and December 2024. To supplement the most recent PLA efforts, Table 2 also includes information on nationwide external technology challenges from 2023 to 2025, drawn from public, Chinese-language news sources.
These challenges underscore three points:
- evidence of multi-domain/cross-domain integration, which moves beyond rhetoric to signal action;
- emphasis on unmanned technological innovation, particularly unmanned aerial vehicles, and new efforts on technological UAV countermeasures; and
- reinforcement of military-civil fusion with key actors in academia, the military, and industry, drawing on a wider national innovation ecosystem for both hardware and software advances.
The first finding of multi-domain integration illustrates the PLA’s efforts to translate words into action; 10 of the 14 challenges span at least two domains, particularly cyberspace, air, and information. As for the second finding, 5 of the 14 challenges explicitly reference offense-defense or “attack-defend” applications for UAVs and AI. For example, the Game of Huashan (2023) challenge “sought to simulate realistic combat environments to rapidly drive the development of UAV swarm countermeasure technologies, and to effectively evaluate the performance of UAV swarm confrontation.” The third finding underscores the PLA’s continued interest in military-civil fusion, reflecting a broader push to mobilize China’s civilian and defense innovation ecosystem for hardware and software development. For instance, in one challenge held in Nanjing and Qingdao, focused on electronic and underwater acoustic targeting, “more than 100 teams participated, including those from China State Shipbuilding Corporation (CSSC), the Academy of Military Sciences, Peking University, the National University of Defense Technology, and Northwestern Polytechnical University.” The participation of defense and civilian universities alongside defense state-owned enterprises is particularly notable, reinforcing prior CSET analysis pointing to the successful diversification of China’s defense security landscape.
In terms of policy relevance, U.S. policymakers can determine whether Chinese investments align with U.S. threat assessments based on PLA challenges and competitions. U.S. analysts can also better understand where the U.S. military holds advantages and gaps compared to the PLA, as well as overall readiness. Furthermore, U.S. leaders can assess participation levels from universities, large defense state-operated enterprises, and repeat and newcomer participants. Public Chinese-language media reports also inform this study, drawing on 18 nationwide external technology challenges, mainly from the past three years. Table 2 reveals that over half of the challenges focused on unmanned aerial vehicles and counter-UAV measures (i.e., offense-defense confrontation), while the other challenges emphasized cybersecurity and artificial intelligence. Some of the hosting agencies of these challenges and competitions include the Training and Administration Department of the Central Military Commission, National University of Defense Technology, Joint Logistics Support Force, Systems Engineering Research Institute of the Academy of Military Sciences, and Cyberspace Administration of China, among others—signaling that the PLA is leveraging both military and civilian institutions to source and develop emerging technologies system-wide.
Limitations and Future Steps
This analysis relies solely on publicly available sources, mainly PLA-issued announcements and Chinese-language news reports. The documents analyzed in this blog represent a small fraction of all Chinese military procurement documents published during that period.
In terms of future research, one can consider a longer timeline or specific competitions involving critical technologies of interest (e.g., artificial intelligence, cyber, and drones). Furthermore, this study examines key challenges and competitions rather than wargames, which would also help supplement our understanding of the PLA’s military innovation efforts.1
Conclusion
This blog provides a rare look into China’s efforts concerning challenges and competitions, a topic of increasing interest given the intensifying U.S.-China geopolitical and technological competition. We find that several challenges prioritize multi-domain integration, technological countermeasures, and autonomous navigation in contested environments, and active participation across diverse partner organizations. It also provides insights into how the PLA prioritizes military innovation, namely, reinforcing integrated joint operations across domains, advancing unmanned technologies, and strengthening military-civil fusion.
Table 1: Challenges and Competitions (PLA Data)
| Challenge Name | Summary and Key Excerpts (Translated into English by Google Translate) | Domain |
| Announcement of the Guidelines for the 5th “Overcoming Obstacles 2023” Land Unmanned Systems Challenge | This challenge promotes innovation and development in land-based unmanned systems equipment technology and operational application (Army unit). The three competitions included: 1) Comprehensive scenario competition, 2) Concept Innovation Competition, and 3) Intelligent Algorithm Competition | Land |
| “Game of Huashan-2023” UAV Swarm Countermeasures Technology Challenge (Small UAV Swarm Information Countermeasures Technology Competition Rules) | In future combat scenarios, UAV swarms are highly mobile and cost-effective, while traditional countermeasures are inefficient in cost-effectiveness against massed enemy swarms. The challenge aims to counter intelligence with intelligence-employing information-attack techniques for countermeasures. This challenge focused on small-scale UAV swarms; it sought to simulate realistic combat environments to rapidly drive the development of UAV swarm countermeasure technologies, and to effectively evaluate the performance of UAV swarm confrontation. The live competition included four tasks: precision strike, route intercept, cooperative encirclement, and face-to-face duel (demonstration event). The algorithms must enable UAV swarms to perform “coordinate attack and interception” against adversarial targets using real-time target position data only, guided by game-theoretic strategies. Evaluation emphasizes coordinated strike on stationary targets, coordinated strike on dynamic targets, game-based adaptation in highly dynamic environments, and comprehensive offensive and defensive capabilities for key-site protection. | Air |
| Full Domain Support-2024 Unmanned Systems Challenge Competition Announcement | To discover advanced technologies in unmanned systems equipment, guide the development direction of intelligent unmanned logistics, and promote rapid transformation of cutting-edge and disruptive technologies in the joint logistics domain, a certain unit of the Joint Logistics Support Force and the System Engineering Research Institute of the Academy of Military Sciences will jointly host the All Domain Support 2024 First Unmanned Systems Challenge. This challenge focused on top-level planning, unmanned aerial delivery, frontier technologies, and application models. | All Domains |
| 2023 Unmanned Surface Vehicle Challenge Announcement | To promote innovation and development in surface unmanned systems technology and equipment, the 2023 Surface Unmanned Boat Challenge is planned—open to universities, research institutes, defense industry groups, and private enterprises. It will focus on the practical application and capability development of surface unmanned equipment, aiming to discover and drive advanced technologies, enhance multi-platform collaborative operations, and build a platform for the application and demonstration of intelligent technology achievements. | Sea |
| The First National Intelligent Algorithm Challenge Competition Officially Launched | This challenge focused on research and application through competition, selected top algorithms and teams, and worked to build an open-source platform for military AI offense-defense confrontation. | Cyberspace andInformation |
| Notice of a Certain Unmanned System Innovation Challenge | Commissioned a certain Army unit to host an Unmanned Systems Innovation challenge—competition focuses on “wide-area target detection, situational fusion generation, and complex environment traversal.” Aim is to discover, cultivate, and apply cutting-edge innovative technologies, capture potential growth points in military capability development, and promote the transformation of civilian innovative achievements into combat effectiveness. | Land/Air |
| “Sharpening Blade-2024B” Network Technology Challenge | This challenge is in response to the need for control and countermeasures against small consumer drones, and to accelerate the application of technologies such as drone security testing, vulnerability analysis, and attack-defense confrontation. It will gather top domestic cyber offense and defense technical teams to showcase their capabilities by engaging in practical attack-and-defense contests focused on typical drone scenarios such as detection (“observe”), defense (“protect”), and control (“control”). | Cyberspace/Air |
| Announcement of Competitive Negotiation for the Development of an Artificial Intelligence Challenge Platform and Environmental Protection | This project is a competitive negotiation for the development of an artificial intelligence challenge platform and environment support. The first winning candidate was the Aerospace Information Research Institute (Chinese Academy of Sciences) and the second winning candidate was the Beijing Qingyan Lanting Technology Co., Ltd. | Cyberspace |
| Announcement on the “Yuanrong Qihang-2023A” UAV Swarm Countermeasures Technology Challenge | In response to the threat of drone swarm attacks, and to address current issues such as low autonomy and intelligence levels in drone swarm countermeasure systems, weak multi-target handling capabilities, and slow closed-loop response speeds, with a focus on key technologies including drone swarm confrontation games and intelligent small drone swarm information countermeasures, we are organizing a Drone Swarm Countermeasure Technology Challenge. | Cyberspace/Air |
| Announcement Released for the Navy’s Third “Golden Dolphin” Cup Electronic Underwater Acoustic Countermeasures Algorithm Challenge | Navy’s 3rd Golden Dolphin Electronic Acoustic Countermeasure Algorithm Challenge invited innovative military and civilian research teams. The technologies being tested included: electronics, radar, underwater acoustics, and ordnance. The winning teams included EXCERA (Aike Saipu) and the Xi’an University of Electronic Science and Technology Hangzhou Research Institute. | Cyberspace/Sea |
| Announcement of the Results of the Air Force’s First “Tianxing Cup” Intelligent Air Combat Algorithm Challenge | This challenge is focused on adversarial gaming and confrontation, featuring one-on-one medium and short-range air combat scenarios, adopting a machine-versus-machine, algorithm-versus-algorithm format. A total of 306 teams registered for the competition, including from military and civilian research institutes, universities, state-owned enterprises, and private companies engaged in intelligent algorithm research. | Cyberspace andInformation |
| Announcement of the Second Navy “Golden Dolphin” Cup Electronic/Acoustic Target Intelligent Recognition Algorithm Challenge | The Navy held the 2nd Golden Dolphin Cup Electronic/Underwater Acoustic Target Intelligent Recognition Algorithm Challenge in the second half of 2023. Challenge consists of three sections: Electronic, Maritime Situation, and Underwater Acoustics. The two competition zones include Nanjing and Qingdao. For the maritime situation category, submissions were solicited for automatic detection and tracking of maritime target traces and intelligent classification and recognition of sea-air target trajectories. More than 100 teams participated, including those from China State Shipbuilding Corporation (CSSC), the Academy of Military Sciences, Peking University, the National University of Defense Technology, and Northwestern Polytechnical University. | Sea/Cyberspace |
| Notice on Holding the “XXXX-2024” Frontier Technology Challenge | To promote the practical application of intelligent technologies in urban environments, the Office of a Major Engineering Special Project has decided to host this challenge (on-site equipment competition and algorithm competition and solution competition). | All domains |
| Notice on the Release of the Preliminary Announcement of the 2025 Unmanned Platform 3D Cross-Domain Collaboration Challenge | In order to select cross-domain collaborative technologies for clusters of unmanned platforms in the air, surface, and underwater domains, the 2025 2nd Unmanned Platform Three-Dimensional Cross-Domain Collaborative Challenge is planned to be held. The event will have four activities: physical challenge, virtual competition, achievement exhibition, and internal forum. Advanced technologies emerging from this challenge will be incubated and cultivated under the cross-domain cluster systematic technology project group during the 15th Five-Year Plan period; advanced equipment emerging from this challenge will be given priority through the equipment fast-track arrangement. Space Track: Evaluates participants’ coordination, intelligence in cooperative decision-making, trajectory planning, and control algorithms.Air Track: Tests the autonomous decision-making and efficient coordination of uncrewed aerial vehicles swarms under simulated adversarial environments.Ground Track: Focuses on multi-vehicle cooperative transport through swarm intelligence, addressing changes in multi-target allocation, path planning, and dynamic coordination in complex urban settings.Surface Track: Centers on coordinated decision-making of uncrewed surface vessel swarms under mission constraints, emphasizing real-time performance, coordination, and intelligence within realistic software-hardware and data-interface conditions.Underwater Track: Explores cooperative decision-making and adversarial gaming among underwater robotic swarms through simulation in complex underwater environments.Cross-Domain Track: Focuses on UAV-UGV dynamic following and precision-landing coordination, tackling trajectory synchronization, and accurate landing of UAVs on moving ground vehicles in dynamic conditions. | All Domain |
Table 2: Challenges (Chinese Language Media Reporting of Challenges)
| Challenge Name | Summary (Translated to English using Google Translate) | Technology Focus |
| Military Modeling Competition of the Entire Military | The competition has cultivated core data-analysis personnel who excel in exercises and training. Its algorithms and models strongly support combat planning and command-and-control optimization. | Mathematical Modeling |
| National Youth Intelligent Uncrewed Systems Application Competition | It trains reserve aviation innovators for China’s goal of becoming an aviation power. | Intelligent Uncrewed Systems |
| “Navigation Cup” Military Academies Orienteering Invitational and the First Uncrewed Aerial Vehicle Orienteering Competition | It tests UAV mastery and battlefield judgment, merging technology with real combat and showing future warfare forms. | Uncrewed Aerial Vehicles |
| “All-Domain Support” Uncrewed Systems Challenge | It identifies advanced uncrewed-system technologies, guides intelligent logistics development, and speeds disruptive tech conversion in joint logistics. | Uncrewed Systems |
| “Counter Uncrewed Supremacy” Maker Competition | It gathers nationwide concepts, technologies, and algorithms to solve bottlenecks and drive counter-uncrewed equipment development. | Counter-UAV |
| “Uncrewed Supremacy” Challenge | It promotes intelligent swarm-tech progress, explores new operational concepts, and accelerates lab-to-battlefield transition. | Uncrewed Aerial Vehicles |
| Ultra-Low-Cost Uncrewed Aerial Vehicle Performance Evaluative Event | Through live-flight tests, it finds cost-effective UAV designs; winners may enter procurement lists. | Uncrewed Aerial Vehicles |
| “Contest of the Uncrewed” Equipment Challenge | Competition-based training cultivates combat-ready NCOs and personnel. | Uncrewed Systems |
| “Overcoming Obstacles” Ground Uncrewed Systems Challenge | It advances land-based uncrewed systems’ technological and operational innovation. | Ground Uncrewed Systems |
| China Postgraduate Cybersecurity Innovation Competition | It tackles chokepoint issues in cybersecurity and builds a reserve of high-level specialists. | Cybersecurity |
| “Strong Net Cup” National Cybersecurity Challenge | It implements Xi Jinping’s network-power vision and innovates cybersecurity talent-training models. | Cybersecurity |
| “Cybersecurity Xiangjun Cup” Cybersecurity Elite Challenge | It strengthens students’ practical cybersecurity skills, builds national training systems, and expands the “Cybersecurity Xiangjun” brand. | Cybersecurity |
| “Sky Net Cup” Cybersecurity Competition | It enhances Tianjin’s influence in cybersecurity, focusing on network, digital, and AI security. | Cybersecurity |
| “Sky Intelligence Cup” Artificial Intelligence Challenge | It accelerates intelligent aerospace development, mobilizes national expertise, and builds an innovation ecosystem for talent and results conversion. | Artificial Intelligence |
| “Smart Rocket – Golden Vision” Artificial Intelligence Challenge | It promotes Rocket Force equipment intelligent development. | Artificial Intelligence |
| National Intelligent Algorithm Confrontation Challenge | It drives research and application through competition, selects top algorithms and teams, and builds an open-source platform for military AI offense-defense confrontation. | Artificial Intelligence |
| “Strategy within Inches – Joint Intelligence Victory” Joint Operations Intelligent Wargaming Challenge | It supports next-generation intelligent planning-system research and innovation. | Artificial Intelligence |
| “Prophet – Sage of War” Human-Machine Confrontation Challenge | Using wargame simulations and machine learning, it enables red-blue AIs to conduct autonomous, intelligent confrontation. | Artificial Intelligence |
Methodology
Table 1 draws on 14 challenges from a dataset of documents published by the PLA between January 2023 and December 2024. This analysis uses a combination of keyword searches to identify documents related to challenges and competition. The keywords included the following:
• 挑战: Challenge
• 竞赛: Competition
• 人机混合智能: Human-machine hybrid intelligence
• 军事演习: Military exercise
• 对抗演练: Combat drill (confrontation drill in the cyber context)
• 战争推演: Wargame/Simulation
• 海峡雷霆: Strait Thunder
• 推演|演习: Simulation/Exercise
• 联合利剑: Joint Sword
The keyword “Challenge” yielded approximately 90 related documents, summarized in Table 1, with 14 main challenges of interest.
Acknowledgements
For their careful review, thoughtful comments, and constructive feedback, the author would like to thank Emelia Probasco, Sam Bresnick, Cole McFaul, Ben Murphy, as well as Fanny Chao for her excellent research assistance.
- For more on wargames, see: Selected Works of Mao Tse-Tung, “On Protracted War,” May 1938,
https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/selected-works/volume-2/mswv2_09.htm; Dean Cheng, “The People’s Liberation Army on Wargaming,” War on the Rocks, February 17, 2025, https://warontherocks.com/2015/02/the-peoples-liberation-army-on-wargaming/; Taylor M. Fravel, Active Defense: China’s Military Strategy Since 1949: Active Defense, Princeton University Press, 2019, https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691152134/active defense?srsltid=AfmBOoo65JHBxWSZENwURwM666L7RvumDySKbYV2WNzuGof94zlOYAWo